History of the English Language: Group 27

viernes 15 de mayo de 2009

Note about the etymology of words.

We have used the following online dictionaries:

www.etymonline.com
www.oed.com

jueves 14 de mayo de 2009

PORTFOLIO PRESENTATION (part 2)

For: O.E. for "for, before, on account of," from P.Gmc. *fura (cf. O.S. furi, Du. voor "for, before;" Ger. für "for;" Dan. for "for," før "before;" Goth. faur "for," faura "before"); see fore. A common prefix in O.E., where it could be intensive, destructive, or perfective. Its use alone as a conjunction (not found before 12c.) is probably a shortening of common O.E. phrases such as for þon þy "therefore."

be: O.E. beon, beom, bion "be, exist, come to be, become," from P.Gmc. *beo-, *beu-. Roger Lass ("Old English") describes the verb as "a collection of semantically related paradigm fragments," while Weekley calls it "an accidental conglomeration from the different Old English dial[ect]s." It is the most irregular verb in Mod.E. and the most common. Collective in all Gmc. languages, it has eight different forms in Mod.E.: BE (infinitive, subjunctive, imperative), AM (present 1st person singular), ARE (present 2nd person singular and all plural), IS (present 3rd person singular), WAS (past 1st and 3rd persons singular), WERE (past 2nd person singular, all plural; subjunctive), BEING (progressive & present participle; gerund), BEEN (perfect participle). The modern verb represents the merger of two once-distinct verbs, the "b-root" represented by be and the am/was verb, which was itself a conglomerate. The "b-root" is from PIE base *bheu-, *bhu- "grow, come into being, become," and in addition to Eng. it yielded Ger. present first and second person sing. (bin, bist, from O.H.G. bim "I am," bist "thou art"), L. perf. tenses of esse (fui "I was," etc.), O.C.S. byti "be," Gk. phu- "become," O.Ir. bi'u "I am," Lith. bu'ti "to be," Rus. byt' "to be," etc. It is also behind Skt. bhavah "becoming," bhavati "becomes, happens," bhumih "earth, world."

wise: O.E. wis, from P.Gmc. *wisaz (cf. O.S., O.Fris. wis, O.N. viss, Du. wijs, Ger. weise "wise"), from pp. adj. *wittos of PIE base *woid-/*weid-/*wid- "to see," hence "to know" (see vision). Slang meaning "aware, cunning" first attested 1896. Related to the source of O.E. witan "to know, wit."

in: O.E. in "in," inne "within," from P.Gmc. *in (cf. O.Fris, Du., Ger., Goth. in, O.N. i), from PIE *en-/*n (cf. Gk. en, L. in, O.Ir. in, Welsh yn-, O.C.S. on-). Sense of "holding power" (the in party) first recorded 1605; that of "exclusive" (the in-crowd, an in-joke) is from 1907; that of "stylish, fashionable" (the in thing) is from 1960. The noun sense of "influence, access" (have an in with) first recorded 1929 in Amer.Eng. The suffix -in attached to a verb originated 1960 with sit-in, probably infl. by sit-down strike, used first of protests, extended c.1965 to any gathering. In-and-out "copulation" is attested from 1620.

byynge: O.E. bycgan (pt. bohte) from P.Gmc. *bugjanan (cf. O.S. buggjan, Goth. bugjan), of unknown origin, not found outside Gmc. The surviving spelling is southwest England dialect; the word was generally pronounced in O.E. and M.E. with a -dg- sound as "budge," or "bidge." Meaning "believe, accept as true" first recorded 1926.

of: O.E. of, unstressed form of æf (prep., adv.) "away, away from," from P.Gmc. *af- (cf. O.N. af, O.Fris. af, of "of," Du. af "off, down," Ger. ab "off, from, down"), from PIE *apo- "off, away" (see apo-). Primary sense in O.E. was still "away," but shifted in M.E. with use of the word to translate L. de, ex, and especially O.Fr. de, which had come to be the substitute for the genitive case. "Of shares with another word of the same length, as, the evil glory of being accessory to more crimes against grammar than any other."

vitaille: c.1303, vitaylle (singular), from Anglo-Fr. and O.Fr. vitaille, from L.L. victualia "provisions," noun use of plural of victualis "of nourishment," from victus "livelihood, food, sustenance," from base of vivere "to live" (see vital). Spelling altered 1523 to conform with L., but pronunciation remains "vittles."

wheither: O.E. hwæðer, hweðer "which of two, whether," from P.Gmc. *khwatharaz (cf. O.S. hwedar, O.N. hvarr, Goth. huaþar, O.H.G. hwedar "which of the two," Ger. weder "neither"), from interrogative base *khwa- "who" (see who) + comparative suffix *-theraz (cf. Skt. katarah, Avestan katara-, Gk. poteros, L. uter "which of the two, either of two," Lith. katras "which of the two," O.C.S. koteru "which"). Its comparative form is either.

that: O.E. þæt, neuter sing. of the demonstrative pronoun and adj. (corresponding to masc. se, fem. seo), from P.Gmc. *that, from PIE *tod-, extended form of demonstrative pronomial base *to- (cf. Skt. ta-, Lith., O.C.S. to, Gk. to "the," L. talis "such"). Cf. the. Emerged c.1200 as a demonstrative adj. with the breakdown of the O.E. grammatical gender system, perhaps by infl. of Fr. and L., which had demonstrative adjectives (O.E. did not). Slang that way "in love" first recorded 1929. That-a-way is recorded from 1839. "Take that," said while delivering a blow, is recorded from c.1425.

he: O.E. he (see paradigm of O.E. third pers. pronoun below), from P.Gmc. *hiz, from P.Gmc. base *khi-, from PIE *ki-, the "this, here" (as opposed to "that, there") root (cf. Hittite ki "this," Gk. ekeinos "that person," O.C.S. si, Lith. sis "this"), and thus the source of the third person pronouns in O.E. The feminine, hio, was replaced in early M.E. by forms from other stems (see she), while the h- wore off O.E. neut. hit to make modern it. The P.Gmc. root is also the source of the first element in Ger. heute "today," lit. "the day" (cf. O.E. heodæg). Slang he-man "masculine fellow" is from 1832, originally among U.S. pioneers.

payde: c.1200, "to appease, pacify, satisfy," from O.Fr. paiier (12c.), from L. pacare "to please, pacify, satisfy" (especially a creditor), from pax (gen. pacis) "peace." Meaning "to give what is due for goods or services" arose in M.L., was attested in Eng. by c.1225; sense of "please, pacify" died out in Eng. by 1500. Sense of "suffer, endure" (a punishment, etc.) is first recorded 1387. Payday first attested 1529. Payphone first attested 1936.

or: c.1200, from O.E. conj. oþþe "either, or," related to O.N. eða, O.H.G. odar, Ger. oder, Goth. aiþþau "or." This was extended in early M.E. with an -r ending, perhaps by analogy of other "choice between alternative" words that ended this way (either, whether), then reduced to oþþr, at first in unstressed situations (commonly thus in Northern and Midlands Eng. by 1300), and finally reduced to or, though other survived in this sense until 16c. The contraction took place in the second term of an alternative, such as either ... or, a common construction in O.E., where both words originally were oþþe.

took: late O.E. tacan, from a N.Gmc. source (e.g. O.N. taka "take, grasp, lay hold," past tense tok, pp. tekinn; Swed. ta, pp. tagit), from P.Gmc. *tækanan (cf. M.L.G. tacken, M.Du. taken, Goth. tekan "to touch"), of uncertain origin, perhaps originally meaning "to touch." Gradually replaced M.E. nimen as the verb for "to take," from O.E. niman, from the usual W.Gmc. *nem- root (cf. Ger. nehmen, Du. nemen), also of unknown origin. OED calls it "one of the elemental words of the language;" take up alone has 55 varieties of meaning in that dictionary. Basic sense is "to lay hold of," which evolved to "accept, receive" (as in take my advice) c.1200; "absorb" (he can take a punch) c.1200; "to choose, select" (take the long way home) c.1275; "to make, obtain" (take a shower) 1375; "to become affected by" (take sick) c.1300. Take five is 1929, from the approximate time it takes to smoke a cigarette. Take it easy first recorded 1880; take the plunge "act decisively" is from 1876; take the rap "accept (undeserved) punishment" is from 1930. Phrase take it or leave it is recorded from 1897.

by: O.E. be (unstressed) or bi (stressed), from P.Gmc. *bi "around, about" (cf. Du. bij, Ger. bei "by, at, near"), from *umbi, (cognate with second element in PIE *ambhi "around," cf. Skt. abhi "toward, to," Gk. amphi- "around, about"). Originally an adverbial particle of place, in which sense it is retained in place names (Whitby, Grimsby, etc.). Elliptical use for "secondary course" (opposed to main) was in O.E. This also is the sense of the second by in the phrase by the by (1615). Bygone is from 1424; by-product is from 1857; bystander from 1619; byline of a newspaper article, etc., is from 1926. Phrase by and by (c.1314) originally meant "one by one," modern sense is from 1526. By and large (1669) was originally nautical, "sailing to the wind and off it," hence "in one direction then another."

taille: "stick marked with notches to indicate amount owed or paid," from Anglo-Fr. tallie (1321), Anglo-L. talea (1189), from M.L. tallia, from L. talea "a cutting, rod, stick" (see tailor, and cf. sense history of score). Meaning "a thing that matches another" first recorded 1651, said to be from practice of splitting a tally lengthwise, debtor and creditor each retaining one of the halves. Sports sense of "a total score" is from 1856. The verb is c.1440, from M.L. talliare "to tax," from tallia.

Algate (guard): 1412, "one who keeps watch," from M.Fr. garde "guardian, warden, keeper," from garder "to guard," from O.Fr. guarder (corresponding to O.N.Fr. warder, see gu-), from Frank. *wardon, from P.Gmc. *wardo- (see ward (v.)). Abstract or collective sense of "a keeping, a custody" (as in bodyguard) is from 1426. Sword-play and boxing sense is from 1596. The verb is first recorded 1583, from the noun. Guarded "reserved and cautious in speech, behavior, etc." is from 1728. Guardian (c.1330) is from Anglo-Fr. gardein, from O.Fr. gardien, earlier guarden, from Frank. *warding-.

wayted:

so:O.E. swa, swæ "in this way," from P.Gmc. *swa (cf. O.S., M.Du., O.H.G. so, O.N. sva, Dan. saa, Swed. sa, O.Fris. sa, Du. zo, Ger. so "so," Goth. swa "as"), from PIE reflexive pronomial stem *s(w)o- (cf. Gk. hos "as," O.Latin suad "so," L. se "himself"). So? as a term of dismissal is attested from 1886 (short for is that so?); so what as an exclamation of indifference dates from 1934. So-so "mediocre" is from 1530; so-and-so is from 1596 meaning "something unspecified;" first recorded 1897 as a euphemistic term of abuse.

his: O.E. his (gen. of he), from P.Gmc. *khisa (cf. Goth. is, Ger. es). Originally also the neut. possessive pronoun, but replaced in that sense c.1600 by its. In M.E., hisis was tried for the absolute pronoun (cf. her/hers), but it failed to stick.

achaat:

was: O.E. wesan, wæs, wæron 1st and 3rd person sing. of wesan "to remain," from P.Gmc. *wesanan (cf. O.S. wesan, O.N. vesa, O.Fris. wesa, M.Du. wesen, Du. wezen, O.H.G. wesen "being, existence," Goth. wisan "to be"), from PIE base *wes- "remain, abide, dwell" (cf. Skt. vasati "he dwells, stays;" cf. vestal). Wesan was a distinct verb in O.E., but it came to supply the past tense of am. This began to develop in P.Gmc., since it is also the case in Gothic and Old Norse.

ay: O.E. weg "road, path, course of travel," from P.Gmc. *wegaz (cf. O.S., Du. weg, O.N. vegr, O.Fris. wei, O.H.G. weg, Ger. Weg, Goth. wigs "way"), from PIE *wegh- "to move" (see weigh). Most of the extended senses developed in M.E. Adj. meaning "very, extremely" is early 1980s, perhaps from phrase all the way. Wayfaring is O.E. wegfarende; Ways and means "resources at a person's disposal" is attested from c.1430. Way-out (adj.) "original, bold," is jazz slang, first recorded 1940s.

biforn: O.E. beforan, from P.Gmc. *bi- "by" + *forana "from the front," adv. derivative of *fora (see for). Beforehand is M.E., originally two words, specifically a reference to payment in advance. Contrasting before and after in illustrations is from Hogarth (1768).

good: O.E. god (with a long "o") "having the right or desirable quality," from P.Gmc. *gothaz (cf. O.N. goðr, Du. goed, Ger. gut, Goth. goþs), originally "fit, adequate, belonging together," from PIE base *ghedh- "to unite, be associated, suitable" (cf. O.C.S. godu "pleasing time," Rus. godnyi "fit, suitable," O.E. gædrian "to gather, to take up together"). Irregular comparatives (better, best) reflect a widespread pattern, cf. L. bonus, melior, optimus. First record of good day is from c.1205. Goods "property" first recorded c.1280, but singular in the same sense was in O.E. The good neighbours is Scot. euphemism for "the fairies" (1588). Good-for-nothing is from 1711; good-looking is from 1780; good-natured first recorded 1577. Good sport is from 1917; good to go is attested from 1989.

staat: O.E. *steortian, *stiertan, Kentish variants of styrtan "to leap up" (related to starian "to stare"), from P.Gmc. *sturtjan- (cf. O.Fris. stirta "to fall, tumble," M.Du. sterten, Du. storten "to rush, fall," O.H.G. sturzen, Ger. stürzen "to hurl, throw, plunge"), of unknown origin. From "move or spring suddenly," sense evolved by c.1386 to "awaken suddenly, flinch or recoil in alarm," and 1666 to "cause to begin acting or operating." Meaning "begin to move, leave, depart" is from 1821. The connection is probably from sporting senses ("to force an animal from its lair," c.1384). To start something "cause trouble" is 1917, Amer.Eng. colloquial. For starters "to begin with" is 1873, Amer.Eng. colloquial. Starter home is from 1976; starter set is from 1946, originally of china. Starting block first recorded 1937.

Now: O.E. nu, common Gmc. (cf. O.N. nu, Du. nu, O.Fris. nu, Ger. nun, Goth. nu "now"), from PIE *nu (cf. Skt., Avestan nu, O.Pers. nuram, Hittite nuwa, Gk. nu, nun, L. nunc, O.C.S. nyne, Lith. nu, O.Ir. nu-). Often merely emphatic; non-temporal usage (cf. Now, then) was in O.E. The adj. meaning "up to date" first recorded 1967.

is: O.E. is, from Gmc. stem *es- (cf. O.H.G., Ger., Goth. ist, O.N. es, er), from PIE *es-ti- (cf. Skt. asti, Gk. esti, L. est, Lith. esti, O.C.S. jesti), from base *es- "to be." O.E. lost the final -t-. See be.

nat: O.E. nawiht "nothing," lit "no whit," from na "no" (from PIE base *ne- "no, not;" see un- (1)) + wiht "thing, creature, being"

God: O.E. god "supreme being, deity," from P.Gmc. *guthan (cf. Du. god, Ger. Gott, O.N. guð, Goth. guþ), from PIE *ghut- "that which is invoked" (cf. Skt. huta- "invoked," an epithet of Indra), from root *gheu(e)- "to call, invoke." But some trace it to PIE *ghu-to- "poured," from root *gheu- "to pour, pour a libation" (source of Gk. khein "to pour," khoane "funnel" and khymos "juice;" also in the phrase khute gaia "poured earth," referring to a burial mound). "Given the Greek facts, the Germanic form may have referred in the first instance to the spirit immanent in a burial mound" [Watkins]. Cf. also Zeus. Not related to good. Originally neut. in Gmc., the gender shifted to masc. after the coming of Christianity. O.E. god was probably closer in sense to L. numen. A better word to translate deus might have been P.Gmc. *ansuz, but this was only used of the highest deities in the Gmc. religion, and not of foreign gods, and it was never used of the Christian God. It survives in Eng. mainly in the personal names beginning in Os-.

a: indefinite article, c.1150, a variation of O.E. an (see an) in which the -n- began to disappear before consonants, a process mostly complete by 1340. The -n- also was retained before words beginning with a sounded -h- until c.1600; it still is retained by many writers before unaccented syllables in h- or (e)u-, but is now no longer normally spoken as such. The -n- also lingered (especially in southern England dialect) before -w- and -y- through 15c.

ful: O.E. full "completely, full," from P.Gmc. *fullaz (cf. O.Fris. ful, O.N. fullr, O.H.G. fol, Ger. voll, Goth. fulls), from PIE *ple- (see plenary). Adverbial sense was common in M.E. (full well, full many, etc.). Full moon was O.E. fulles monan; first record of full-blood in relation to racial purity is from 1812. Full house is 1710 in the theatrical sense, 1887 in the poker sense.

fair: O.E. fæger "beautiful, pleasant," from P.Gmc. *fagraz (cf. O.N. fagr, O.H.G. fagar "beautiful," Goth. fagrs "fit"), from PIE *fag-. The meaning in ref. to weather (c.1205) preserves the original sense (opposed to foul). Sense of "light complexioned" (1551) reflects tastes in beauty; sense of "free from bias" (c.1340) evolved from another early meaning, "morally pure, unblemished" (c.1175). The sporting senses (fair ball, fair catch etc.) began in 1856. Fair play is from 1595; fair and square is from 1604. Fair-haired in the fig. sense of "darling, favorite" is from 1909. Fairly in the sense of "somewhat" is from 1805; it earlier meant "totally." Fairway (1584) originally meant "navigational channel of a river;" golfing sense is from 1910. First record of fair-weather friends is from 1736.

grace: c.1175, "God's favor or help," from O.Fr. grace "pleasing quality, favor, good will, thanks," from L. gratia "pleasing quality, good will, gratitude," from gratus "pleasing, agreeable," from PIE base *gwer- "to praise, welcome" (cf. Skt. grnati "sings, praises, announces," Lith. giriu "to praise, celebrate," Avestan gar- "to praise"). Sense of "virtue" is c.1330, that of "beauty of form or movement, pleasing quality" is c.1340. In classical sense, "one of the three sister goddesses (L. Gratiæ, Gk. Kharites), bestowers of beauty and charm," it is first recorded in Eng. 1579 in Spenser. The short prayer that is said before or after a meal (c.1225, until 16c. usually graces) is in the sense of "gratitude." Verb meaning "to show favor" (c.1440) led to that of "to lend or add grace to something" (1586, e.g. grace us with your presence), which is the root of the musical sense in grace notes (1657). Gracious as an exclamation (1713) is short for gracious God, etc.

swich: O.E. swylc, swilc from a P.Gmc. compound *swalikaz "so formed" (cf. O.S. sulik, O.N. slikr, O.Fris. selik, M.Du. selc, Du. zulk, O.H.G. sulih, Ger. solch, Goth. swaleiks), from swa "so" (see so) + *likan "form," source of O.E. gelic "similar" (see like). Colloquial suchlike (1422) is pleonastic.

lewed: O.E. læwede "nonclerical," of uncertain origin but probably ult. from V.L. *laigo-, from L. laicus (see lay (adj.)). Sense of "unlettered, uneducated" (1225) descended to "coarse, vile, lustful" by 1386.

mannes: O.E. man, mann "human being, person," from P.Gmc. *manwaz (cf. O.S., O.H.G. man, Ger. Mann, O.N. maðr, Goth. manna "man"), from PIE base *man- (cf. Skt. manuh, Avestan manu-, O.C.S. mozi, Rus. muzh "man, male"). Sometimes connected to root *men- "to think" (see mind), which would make the ground sense of man "one who has intelligence," but not all linguists accept this. Plural men (Ger. Männer) shows effects of i-mutation. Sense of "adult male" is late (c.1000); O.E. used wer and wif to distinguish the sexes, but wer began to disappear late 13c. and was replaced by man. Universal sense of the word remains in mankind (from O.E. mancynn, from cynn "kin") and in manslaughter (q.v.). Similarly, L. had homo "human being" and vir "adult male human being," but they merged in V.L., with homo extended to both senses. A like evolution took place in Slavic languages, and in some of them the word has narrowed to mean "husband." PIE had two stems: *uiHro "freeman" (cf. Skt. vira-, Lith. vyras, L. vir, O.Ir. fer, Goth. wair) and *hner "man," a title more of honor than *uiHro (cf. Skt. nar-, Armenian ayr, Welsh ner, Gk. aner). The chess pieces so called from c.1400. As an interjection of surprise or emphasis, first recorded c.1400, but especially popular from early 20c.

wit: "mental capacity," O.E. wit, more commonly gewit, from P.Gmc. *witjan (cf. O.S. wit, O.N. vit, Dan. vid, Swed. vett, O.Fris. wit, O.H.G. wizzi "knowledge, understanding, intelligence, mind," Ger. Witz "wit, witticism, joke," Goth. unwiti "ignorance"), from PIE *woid-/*weid-/*wid- "to see," metaphorically "to know" (see vision). Related to O.E. witan "to know" (source of wit (v.)). Meaning "ability to make clever remarks in an amusing way" is first recorded 1542; that of "person of wit or learning" is from c.1470. Witticism coined 1677, by Dryden. For nuances of usage, see humor.

shal: O.E. sceal "I owe/he owes, will have to, ought to, must" (infinitive sculan, pt. sceolde), a common Gmc. preterite-present verb, from P.Gmc. *skal-, *skul- (cf. O.S. sculan, O.N., Swed. skola, M.Du. sullen, O.H.G. solan, Ger. sollen, Goth. skulan "to owe, be under obligation;" related via past tense form to O.E. scyld "guilt," Ger. Schuld "guilt, debt;" also O.N. Skuld, name of one of the Norns). Ground sense probably is "I owe," hence "I ought." The sense shifted in M.E. from a notion of "obligation" to include "futurity." Its past tense form has become should (q.v.). Cognates outside Gmc. are Lith. skeleti "to be guilty," skilti "to get into debt;" O.Prus. skallisnan "duty," skellants "guilty."

pace:

wisdom: O.E. wisdom, from wis (see wise (adj.)) + -dom. A common Gmc. compound (cf. O.S., O.Fris. wisdom, O.N. visdomr, O.H.G. wistuom "wisdom," Ger. Weistum "judicial sentence serving as a precedent"). Wisdom teeth so called from 1848 (earlier teeth of wisdom, 1668), a loan-translation of L. dentes sapientiæ, itself a loan-transl. of Gk. sophronisteres (used by Hippocrates, from sophron "prudent, self-controlled"), so called because they usually appear ages 17-25, when a person reaches adulthood.

heep: O.E. heap "pile, great number, multitude," from W.Gmc. *khaupaz (cf. O.S. hop, M.L.G. hupe, Du. hoop, Ger. Haufe "heap"), probably related to O.E. heah "high." The verb is from O.E. heapian. Slang meaning "old car" is attested from 1924.

lerned: O.E. leornian "to get knowledge, be cultivated," from P.Gmc. *liznojan (cf. O.Fris. lernia, O.H.G. lernen, Ger. lernen "to learn," Goth. lais "I know), with a base sense of "to follow or find the track," from PIE *leis- "track." Related to Ger. Gleis "track," and to O.E. læst "sole of the foot" (see last (n.)). The transitive sense (He learned me how to read), now vulgar, was acceptable from c.1200 until early 19c., from O.E. læran "to teach" (cf. M.E. lere, Ger. lehren "to teach;" see lore), and is preserved in the adj. learned "having knowledge gained by study" (c.1340).

maistres: O.E. mægester "one having control or authority," from L. magister "chief, head, director, teacher" (cf. O.Fr. maistre, Fr. maître, It. maestro, Ger. Meister), infl. in M.E. by O.Fr. maistre, from L. magister, contrastive adj. from magis (adv.) "more," itself a comp. of magnus "great." Meaning "original of a recording" is from 1904. In academic senses (from M.L. magister) it is attested from 1380s, originally a degree conveying authority to teach in the universities. The verb is attested from c.1225.

hadde: O.E. habban "to own, possess," from P.Gmc. *khaf- (cf. O.N. hafa, O.S. hebbjan, O.Fris. habba, Ger. haben, Goth. haban "to have"), from PIE *kap- "to grasp" (see capable). Not related to L. habere, despite similarity in form and sense; the L. cognate is capere "seize." O.E. second pers. sing. pres. hæfst, third pers. sing. pres. hæfð became M.E. hast, hath, while O.E. -bb- became -v- in have. The p.p. had developed from O.E. gehæfd. Sense of "possess, have at one's disposal" (I have a book) is a shift from older languages, where the thing possessed was made the subject and the possessor took the dative case (e.g. L. est mihi liber "I have a book," lit. "there is to me a book"). Used as an auxiliary in O.E., too (esp. to form present perfect tense); the word has taken on more functions over time; Mod.Eng. he had better would have been O.E. him (dat.) wære betere. To have to for "must" (1579) is from sense of "possess as a duty or thing to be done" (O.E.). Have-not "poor person" first recorded 1836. Phrase have a nice day first attested 1971. You never had it so good (1946) was said to be the stock answer to any complaints about U.S. Army life. Phrase have (noun), will (verb) is from 1954, originally from comedian Bob Hope, in the form Have tux, will travel; Hope described it as typical of vaudevillians' ads in "Variety," indicating a willingness to perform anywhere, any time.

mo: O.E. mara (adj.) "greater, more," used as a comp. of micel "great" (see mickle), from P.Gmc. *maizon (cf. O.S. mera, O.N. meiri, O.Fris. mara, M.Du. mere, O.H.G. mero, Ger. mehr), from PIE *meis (cf. Avestan mazja "greater," O.Ir. mor "great," Gk. -moros "great," Oscan mais "more"). O.E. used related ma "more" as adv., n., from P.Gmc. *mais; this became M.E. mo, but more in this sense began to predominate in later M.E.

than: O.E. þan, conjunctive particle used after a comparative adj. or adv., from þanne, þænne, þonne "then" (see then). Developed from the adverb then, and not distinguished from it in spelling until c.1700. The earliest use is in W.Gmc. comparative forms, i.e. bigger than (cf. Du. dan, Ger. denn), which suggests a semantic development from the demonstrative sense of then: A is bigger than B, evolving from A is bigger, then ("after that") B. Or the word may trace to O.E. þonne "when, when as," such as "When as" B is big, A is more (so).

thries: c.1200, from O.E. þriga, þriwa "thrice" (from þrie "three;" see three) + adverbial genitive -es, changed to -ce c.1600 to reflect voiceless pronunciation.

ten: O.E. ten (Mercian), tien (W.Saxon), from P.Gmc. *tekhan (cf. O.S. tehan, O.N. tiu, Dan. ti, O.Fris. tian, O.Du. ten, Du. tien, O.H.G. zehan, Ger. zehn, Goth. taihun "ten"), from PIE *dekm (cf. Skt. dasa, Avestan dasa, Armenian tasn, Gk. deka, L. decem, O.C.S. deseti, Lith. desimt, O.Ir. deich, Bret. dek, Welsh deg, Alb. djetu "ten"). Tenth is O.E. teoða, teogoða. Tenner "ten-pound note" is slang first recorded 1861; as "ten-dollar bill," 1887 (ten-spot in this sense dates from 1848). The ten-foot pole that you wouldn't touch something with (1909) was originally a 40-foot pole; the idea is the same as the advice to use a long spoon when you dine with the devil. Ten-four "I understand, message received," is attested in popular jargon from 1962, from use in CB and police radio 10-code (in use in U.S. by 1950).

weren: O.E. wæron (past plural indicative of wesan) and wære (second person singular past indicative); see was. The forms illustrate Verner's Law (named for Danish linguist Karl Verner, 1875), which predicts the "s" to "z" sound shift, and rhotacism, which changed "z" to "r." Wast (second person sing.) was formed 1500s on analogy of be/beest, displacing were. An intermediate form, wert, was used in literature 17c.-18c., before were reclaimed the job.

lawe: O.E. lagu (pl. laga, comb. form lah-), from O.N. *lagu "law," collective pl. of lag "layer, measure, stroke," lit. "something laid down or fixed," from P.Gmc. *lagan "put, lay" (see lay (v.)). Replaced O.E. æ and gesetnes, which had the same sense development as law. Cf. also statute, from L. statuere, Ger. Gesetz "law," from O.H.G. gisatzida, Lith. istatymas, from istatyti "set up, establish." Lawsuit is from 1624. Law and order have been coupled since 1796. Law-abiding is from 1859.

expert: c.1374, from L. expertus, pp. of experiri "to try, test" (see experience). The n. sense of "person wise through experience" existed 15c., reappeared 1825. Expertise (1868) is from Fr. expertise "expert appraisal, expert's report."

curious: c.1340, "eager to know" (often in a bad sense), from L. curiosus "careful, diligent, curious," akin to cura "care." The objective sense of "exciting curiosity" is 1715. In booksellers' catalogues, the word means "erotic, pornographic." Curiosity is c.1378; in sense of "object of interest," 1645. Curiouser and curiouser is from "Alice in Wonderland" (1865).

which: O.E. hwilc (W.Saxon) "which," short for hwi-lic "of what form," from P.Gmc. *khwilikaz (cf. O.S. hwilik, O.N. hvelikr, Swed. vilken, O.Fris. hwelik, M.Du. wilk, Du. welk, O.H.G. hwelich, Ger. welch, Goth. hvileiks "which"), from *khwi- "who" (see who) + *likan "body, form" (cf. O.E. lic "body;" see like). In M.E. used as a relative pronoun where mod. Eng. would use who, as still in the Lord's Prayer. O.E. also had parallel forms hwelc and hwylc, which disappeared 15c.

ther: O.E. þær "in or at that place," from P.Gmc. *thær (cf. O.S. thar, O.Fris. ther, M.L.G. dar, M.Du. daer, Du. daar, O.H.G. dar, Ger. da, Goth. þar, O.N. þar), from PIE *tar- "there" (cf. Skt. tar-hi "then"), from base *to- (see the) + adverbial suffix -r. Interjectional use is recorded from 1535. To have been there "had previous experience of some activity" is recorded from 1877.

were: O.E. wæron (past plural indicative of wesan) and wære (second person singular past indicative); see was. The forms illustrate Verner's Law (named for Danish linguist Karl Verner, 1875), which predicts the "s" to "z" sound shift, and rhotacism, which changed "z" to "r." Wast (second person sing.) was formed 1500s on analogy of be/beest, displacing were. An intermediate form, wert, was used in literature 17c.-18c., before were reclaimed the job.

duszeyne: c.1300, from O.Fr. dozeine "a dozen," from douze "twelve," from L. duodecim, from duo "two" + decem "ten." The O.Fr. fem. suffix -aine is characteristically added to cardinals to form collectives in a precise sense ("exactly 12," not "about 12"). The dozens "invective contest" (1928) originated in slave culture, the custom probably African, the word probably from bulldoze (q.v.) in its original sense of "a whipping, a thrashing."

hous: O.E. hus "dwelling, shelter, house," from P.Gmc. *khusan (cf. O.N., O.Fris. hus, Du. huis, Ger. Haus), of unknown origin, perhaps connected to the root of hide (v.). In Goth. only in gudhus "temple," lit. "god-house;" the usual word for "house" in Goth. being razn. Meaning "family, including ancestors and descendants, especially if noble" is from c.1000. The legislative sense (1541) is transferred from the building in which the body meets. Meaning "audience in a theater" is from 1921. Zodiac sense is first attested c.1391. The verb meaning "give shelter to" is O.E. husian (cognate with Ger. hausen, Du. huizen). Household is first recorded 1382; for housewife (c.1225) see hussy. To play house is from 1871; as suggestive of "have sex, shack up," 1968. House arrest first attested 1936; housewarming is from 1577; houseboat is 1790. On the house "free" is from 1889.

Worthy: c.1250, "having merit," from worth (1). Attested from c.1300 as a noun meaning "person of merit" (esp. in Nine Worthies, famous men of history and legend: Joshua, David, Judas Maccabæus, Hector, Alexander, Julius Cæsar, Arthur, Charlemagne, Godfrey of Bouillon -- three Jews, three gentiles, three Christians).

to: O.E. to "in the direction of, for the purpose of, furthermore," from W.Gmc. *to (cf. O.S., O.Fris. to, Du. too, O.H.G. zuo, Ger. zu "to"), from PIE pronomial base *do- "to, toward, upward" (cf. L. donec "as long as," O.C.S. do "as far as, to," Gk. suffix -de "to, toward," O.Ir. do, Lith. da-). In O.E., the preposition (go to town) leveled with the adverb (the door slammed to) except where the adverb retained its stress (tired and hungry too); there it came to be written with -oo (see too). The nearly universal use of to with infinitives (to sleep, to dream, etc.) arose in M.E. out of the O.E. dative use of to, and helped drive out the O.E. inflectional endings (though in this use to itself is a mere sign, without meaning). Commonly used as a prefix in M.E. (to-hear "listen to," etc.), but few of these survive (to-do, together, and time references like today, tonight, tomorrow -- Chaucer also has to-yeere). To and fro "side to side" is attested from 1340.

stywardes: O.E. stiward, stigweard "house guardian," from stig "hall, pen" + weard "guard." Used after the Conquest as the equivalent of O.Fr. seneschal (q.v.). The sense of "officer on a ship in charge of provisions and meals" is first recorded c.1450; extended to trains 1906. Stewardess "female attendant on passenger aircraft" first attested 1931; used of ships (where she waited on the female passengers) from 1837. This was the title of a class of high officers of the state in early England and Scotland, hence meaning "one who manages affairs of an estate on behalf of his employer" (c.1386). Meaning "overseer of workmen" is attested from c.1300. The Scottish form is reflected in Stewart, name of the royal house, from Walter (the) Steward, who married (1315) Marjorie de Bruce, daughter of King Robert. The terminal -t is a Scottish form (c.1370). Stuart is a Fr. spelling, attested from 1429 and adopted by Mary, Queen of Scots.

rente: "payment for use of property," 1137, from O.Fr. rente, from V.L. *rendita, prop. fem. pp. of rendere "to render" (see render). The verb is attested from 1362, from the noun. Rental (n.) "thing let out for rent" is recorded from 1952, Amer.Eng. Prefix rent-a- first attested 1921, mainly of businesses that rented various makes of car (Rentacar is a trademark registered in U.S. 1924); extended to other "temporary" uses since 1961.

lond: O.E. land, lond, "ground, soil," also "definite portion of the earth's surface, home region of a person or a people, territory marked by political boundaries," from P.Gmc. *landom (cf. O.N., O.Fris. Du., Ger., Goth. land), from PIE *lendh- "land, heath" (cf. O.Ir. land, Middle Welsh llan "an open space," Welsh llan "enclosure, church," Breton lann "heath," source of Fr. lande; O.C.S. ledina "waste land, heath," Czech lada "fallow land"). Etymological evidence and Goth. use indicates the original sense was "a definite portion of the earth's surface owned by an individual or home of a nation." Meaning early extended to "solid surface of the earth," which had been the sense of the root of Mod.Eng. earth. Original sense of land in Eng. is now mostly found under country. Landlocked is first attested 1622. Landlord in modern usage first recorded 1419; landlady is from 1536. To take the lay of the land is a nautical expression. Landed "possessed of land" is late O.E. gelandod. In the Amer.Eng. exclamation land's sakes (1846) land is a euphemism for Lord.

any: O.E. ænig "any, anyone," lit. "one-y," from P.Gmc. *ainagas (cf. O.S. enig, O.N. einigr, O.Fris. enich, Du. enig, Ger. einig). Thr -y may have dim. force here. Any old is from 1896. Combinations anywise, anyone, anything date back to O.E.; anywhere is from c.1300; anybody 1490; anyway 1570 (but anyways, with adverbial genitive, is from 1560); anyhow 1740; anyplace 1934. Anywhen (1831) is rarely used

lord: : M.E. laverd, loverd (13c.), from O.E. hlaford "master of a household, ruler, superior," also "God" (translating L. Dominus, though O.E. drihten was used more often), earlier hlafweard, lit. "one who guards the loaves," from hlaf "bread, loaf" + weard "keeper, guardian, ward." Cf. lady, and O.E. hlafæta "household servant," lit. "loaf-eater." Modern monosyllabic form emerged 14c. The verb meaning "to play the lord, domineer" is from 1377; to lord it is from 1579. Interjection Lordy first attested 1853, Amer.Eng. Lord of the Flies translates Beelzebub (q.v.) and was name of 1954 book by William Golding.

Engelond: : O.E. Engla land, lit. "the land of the Angles"

To: O.E. to "in the direction of, for the purpose of, furthermore," from W.Gmc. *to (cf. O.S., O.Fris. to, Du. too, O.H.G. zuo, Ger. zu "to"), from PIE pronomial base *do- "to, toward, upward" (cf. L. donec "as long as," O.C.S. do "as far as, to," Gk. suffix -de "to, toward," O.Ir. do, Lith. da-). In O.E., the preposition (go to town) leveled with the adverb (the door slammed to) except where the adverb retained its stress (tired and hungry too); there it came to be written with -oo (see too). The nearly universal use of to with infinitives (to sleep, to dream, etc.) arose in M.E. out of the O.E. dative use of to, and helped drive out the O.E. inflectional endings (though in this use to itself is a mere sign, without meaning). Commonly used as a prefix in M.E. (to-hear "listen to," etc.), but few of these survive (to-do, together, and time references like today, tonight, tomorrow -- Chaucer also has to-yeere).

make: O.E. macian, from W.Gmc. *makojanan (cf. O.S. makon, O.Fris. makia "to build, make," M.Du. maken, O.H.G. mahhon, Ger. machen), from PIE *mag- "to knead, mix, make"

hym: O.E. him, originally dative masc. and neut. of he; beginning 10c. it replaced hine as masc. accusative, a regional process completed by 15c. The dative roots of the -m ending are retained in Ger. (ihm) and Du. (hem). Hine persists, barely, as the southern England dialectal 'un, 'n for "him."

lyve: O.E. lifian (Anglian), libban (W.Saxon) "to be alive," also "to supply oneself with food, to pass life (in some condition)," from P.Gmc. stem *libæ (cf. O.N. lifa, O.Fris. libba, Ger. leben, Goth. liban "to live"), from PIE base *leip- "to remain, continue" (cf. Gk. liparein "to persist, persevere;"

propre: c.1225, "adapted to some purpose, fit, apt" (implied in properly), from O.Fr. propre (11c.), from L. proprius "one's own, particular to itself," from pro privo "for the individual." Proper name "belonging to or relating to the person or thing in question," is from c.1290, a sense also preserved in astronomical proper motion (c.1300). Meaning "socially appropriate" is first recorded 1704.

honour: c.1200, "glory, renown, fame earned," from Anglo-Fr. honour, from O.Fr. honor, from L. honorem (nom. honos) "honor, dignity, office, reputation," of unknown origin. Till 17c., honour and honor were equally frequent; the former now preferred in England, the latter in U.S. by infl. of Noah Webster's spelling reforms. Meaning "a woman's chastity" first attested 1390. The verb is recorded from c.1290 in sense of "to do honor to;" in the commercial sense of "accept a bill due, etc.," it is recorded from 1706. Honorarium "honorary reward" (1658), was, in L., "bribe paid to get appointed to an honorary post."

dettelees (debt): c.1290, from O.Fr. dete, from L. debitam "thing owed," neut. pp. of debere "to owe," originally, "keep something away from someone," from de- "away" + habere "to have" (see habit). Restored spelling after c.1400 from M.E. dette. The KJV has detter three times, debter three times, debtor twice and debtour once.

but: O.E. butan, buton "unless, without, outside," from W.Gmc. *be- "by" + *utana "from without." Not used as a conjunction in O.E

if: O.E. gif (initial g- in O.E. pronounced with a sound close to Mod.Eng. -y-), from P.Gmc. *ja-ba (cf. O.N. ef, O.Fris. gef, O.H.G. ibu, Ger. ob, Du. of), probably originally from an oblique case of a noun meaning "doubt" (cf. O.H.G. iba, O.N. if "doubt"). Iffy is first attested 1937 in Amer.Eng.; originally associated with President Franklin D. Roosevelt.

were: O.E. wæron (past plural indicative of wesan) and wære (second person singular past indicative). The forms illustrate Verner's Law (named for Danish linguist Karl Verner, 1875), which predicts the "s" to "z" sound shift, and rhotacism, which changed "z" to "r." Wast (second person sing.) was formed 1500s on analogy of be/beest, displacing were. An intermediate form, wert, was used in literature 17c.-18c., before were reclaimed the job.

wood: O.E. wudu, earlier widu "tree, trees collectively, the substance of which trees are made," from P.Gmc. *widuz (cf. O.N. viðr, Dan., Swed. ved "tree, wood," O.H.G. witu "wood"), perhaps from PIE *widhu- "tree, wood" (cf. Welsh gwydd "trees," Gael. fiodh- "wood, timber," O.Ir. fid "tree, wood"). Wooden in the fig. sense of "expressionless and dull" is from 1566. Woodcut first recorded 1662; woodlouse is from 1611, so called from being found in old wood. Woodsy is from 1860; woodwind is first recorded 1876. Woodshed is attested from 1844. Woodwork "article made of wood" is first recorded 1650. Out of the woods "safe" is from 1792.

Or: c.1200, from O.E. conj. oþþe "either, or," related to O.N. eða, O.H.G. odar, Ger. oder, Goth. aiþþau "or." This was extended in early M.E. with an -r ending, perhaps by analogy of other "choice between alternative" words that ended this way (either, whether), then reduced to oþþr, at first in unstressed situations (commonly thus in Northern and Midlands Eng. by 1300), and finally reduced to or, though other survived in this sense until 16c. The contraction took place in the second term of an alternative, such as either ... or, a common construction in O.E., where both words originally were oþþe

as: c.1175, worn-down form of O.E. alswa "quite so". Equivalent to so; any distinction in use is purely idiomatic. Related to Ger. als "as, than."

scarsly: c.1297, "restricted in quantity," from O.N.Fr. scars (O.Fr. eschars) from V.L. *escarpsus, from *excarpere "pluck out," from L. excerpere "pluck out" (see excerpt). Phrase to make oneself scarce "go away" first attested 1809 in "Gil Blas." Scarcely "hardly, only just" is from c.1297.

list: "tilt, lean," especially of a ship, 1880, earlier (1626) lust, of unknown origin, perhaps an unexplained spelling variant of M.E. lysten "to please, desire, wish, like" with a sense development on the notion of "leaning" toward what one desires.

desire: c.1230, from O.Fr. desirer, from L. desiderare "long for, wish for," original sense perhaps "await what the stars will bring," from the phrase de sidere "from the stars," from sidus (gen. sideris) "heavenly body, star, constellation" (but see consider). Noun sense of "lust" is first recorded c.1340.

able: c.1365, from O.Fr. (h)able, from L. habilis "easily handled, apt," verbal adj. from habere "to hold" (see habit). "Easy to be held," hence "fit for a purpose." The silent h- was dropped in Eng. and resisted academic attempts to restore it 16c.-17c., but some derivatives acquired it (e.g. habiliment, habilitate), via Fr. Able-bodied first attested 1622.

helpen: O.E. helpan (class III strong verb; past tense healp, pp. holpen), from P.Gmc. *khelpanan (cf. O.N. hjalpa, O.Fris. helpa, Du. helpen, Ger. helfen), from PIE base *kelb-/*kelp- "to help" (cf. Lith. selpiu "to support, help"). Sense of "serve someone with food at table" (1688) is translated from Fr. servir "to help, stead, avail," and led to helping "portion of food" (1824). Use of help as euphemism for "servant" is Amer.Eng., 1645, tied up in notions of class and race.

al: O.E. eall "all, every, entire," from P.Gmc. *alnaz (cf. O.Fris., O.H.G. al, O.N. allr, Goth. alls), with no certain connection outside Gmc. At all (c.1350) was formerly only in the affirmative, recently usually negative except in literary attempts at Irish dialect.

shire: O.E. scir "administrative office or district," from P.Gmc. *skizo (cf. O.H.G. scira "care, official charge"). Ousted since 14c. by Anglo-Fr. county (q.v.). The gentrified sense is from The Shires (1796), used by people in other parts of England of those counties that end in -shire; sense transferred to the hunting country of the Midlands (1860).

caas: "state of affairs," c.1225, from O.Fr. cas "an event," from L. casus "a chance," lit. "a falling," from cas-, pp. stem of cadere "to fall," from PIE base *kad- "to fall" (cf. Skt. sad- "to fall down," Armenian chacnum "to fall, become low," perhaps also M.Ir. casar "hail, lightning"). The notion being "that which falls" as "that which happens." Widespread extended senses in law, medicine, grammar, etc. In case "in the event" is recorded from c.1340.

myghte: O.E. mihte, meahte, originally the past tense of may (O.E. magen "to be able"), thus "*may-ed." See may (v.). The first record of might-have-been is from 1848.

Falle: O.E. feallan (class VII strong verb; past tense feoll, pp. feallen), from P.Gmc. *fallanan (cf. O.N. falla, O.H.G. fallan), from PIE base *phol- "to fall" (cf. Armenian p'ul "downfall," Lith. puola "to fall," O.Prus. aupallai "finds," lit. "falls upon"). Noun sense of "autumn" (now only in U.S.) is 1664, short for fall of the leaf (1545). That of "cascade, waterfall" is from 1579. Most of the figurative senses had developed in M.E. Meaning "to be reduced" (as temperature) is from 1658. To fall in love is attested from 1530; to fall asleep is 1393. Fall guy is from 1906. Fallout "radioactive particles" is from 1950. Fallen "morally ruined" is from 1628.

Happe: c.1300, happenen "to come to pass, occur," originally "occur by hap" (see hap); replaced O.E. gelimpan, gesceon, and M.E. befall. First record of happenstance is 1897, formed from happening + circumstance. Happening in the sense of "spontaneous event or display" is from 1959.

This: O.E. þis, neuter demonstrative pronoun and adj. (masc. þes, fem. þeos), probably from a North Sea Gmc. pronoun formed by combining the base *þa- (see that) with -s, which is probably identical with O.E. se "the" (representing here "a specific thing"), but it may be O.E. seo, imperative of see (v.) "to behold." Cf. O.S. these, O.N. þessi, Du. deze, O.Fris. this, O.H.G. deser, Ger. dieser. Once fully inflected, with 10 distinct forms (see table below); the oblique cases and other genders gradually fell away by 15c. The O.E. plural was þæs (nom. and acc.), which in Northern M.E. became thas, and in Midlands and Southern England became thos. The Southern form began to be used late 13c. as the plural of that (replacing M.E. tho, from O.E. þa) and acquired an -e (apparently from the influence of M.E. adj. plurals in -e; cf. alle from all, summe from sum "some"), emerging early 14c. as modern those. About 1175 thes (probably a variant of O.E. þæs) began to be used as the plural of this, and by 1200 it had taken the form these, the final -e acquired via the same mechanism that gave one to those.

Sette: O.E. settan "cause to sit, put in some place, fix firmly," from P.Gmc. *satjanan (cf. O.N. setja, O.Fris. setta, Du. zetten, Ger. setzen), causative form of P.Gmc. root *set- (cf. O.E. sittan "to sit," see sit). Confused with sit since early 14c. Of the sun, moon, etc., "to go down," recorded from c.1300. Set-to "bout, fight" is 1743,. Setback (n.) is from 1674.

Hir: c.1200, from O.N. þeir, originally masculine plural demonstrative pronoun, from P.Gmc. *thai, nom. pl. pronoun, from PIE *to- (see that). Gradually replaced O.E. hi, hie, plurals of he, heo, hit (see he, she, it) by c.1400.

Aller: O.E. eall "all, every, entire," from P.Gmc. *alnaz (cf. O.Fris., O.H.G. al, O.N. allr, Goth. alls), with no certain connection outside Gmc.

Cappe: From cappe n. & ML cappre (ppl. capptus).] (a) To put a cap on (sb.), provide with a cap or headdress; capped, wearing a cap; (b) capped, with the head covered (in a certain way); (c) capped, wearing a clergyman's cap, priestly.

Reve: "steward," O.E. gerefa, of unknown origin and with no known cognates. Not connected to Ger. Graf (see margrave). An Anglo-Saxon official of high rank, having local jurisdiction under a king. Cf. sheriff.

Sclendre: c.1300, probably from a Fr. source, often said to be from O.Fr. esclendre "thin, slender," which could be from O.Du. slinder, but the connections, and even the existence of these words, is doubtful.

Colerik: C. 1256, from a Fr. Origin. Adjective and noun colerike, colorike, colorique «who shows submission to bile disease» (Aldebrand de Sienne, Régime du corps, 13, 19; 49, 14; 154, 6 ds T.-L.); 1536 chollerique (B. de La Grise, trad. de Guevara, L'Orloge des Princes, II, 20 ds Hug. Linked in meaning to the term “coléreux” 1574 adj. « prone to feel anger/to fall in cholera » (R. Garnier, Cornelie, 152 ds Hug.).

Man: O.E. man, mann "human being, person," from P.Gmc. *manwaz (cf. O.S., O.H.G. man, Ger. Mann, O.N. maðr, Goth. manna "man"), from PIE base *man- (cf. Skt. manuh, Avestan manu-, O.C.S. mozi, Rus. muzh "man, male"). Sometimes connected to root *men- "to think" (see mind), which would make the ground sense of man "one who has intelligence," but not all linguists accept this. Plural men (Ger. Männer) shows effects of i-mutation. Sense of "adult male" is late (c.1000); O.E. used wer and wif to distinguish the sexes, but wer began to disappear late 13c. and was replaced by man. Universal sense of the word remains in mankind (from O.E. mancynn, from cynn "kin") and in manslaughter (q.v.). Similarly, L. had homo "human being" and vir "adult male human being," but they merged in V.L., with homo extended to both senses. A like evolution took place in Slavic languages, and in some of them the word has narrowed to mean "husband." PIE had two stems: *uiHro "freeman" (cf. Skt. vira-, Lith. vyras, L. vir, O.Ir. fer, Goth. wair) and *hner "man," a title more of honor than *uiHro (cf. Skt. nar-, Armenian ayr, Welsh ner, Gk. aner). The chess pieces so called from c.1400. As an interjection of surprise or emphasis, first recorded c.1400, but especially popular from early 20c. Man-about-town is from 1734; the Man "the boss" is from 1918. Men's Liberation first attested 1970.

berd: O.E. beard "beard," from W.Gmc. *barthaz (cf. M.Du. baert, Ger. bart), seemingly from PIE *bhar-dha "beard" (cf. O.C.S. brada, Lith. barzda, and perhaps L. barba "beard"). The verb is from M.E. phrase rennen in berd "oppose openly," on the same notion as modern slang get in (someone's) face. Pubic hair sense is from 1600s.

shave: O.E. sceafan "to scrape, shave, polish," from P.Gmc. *skabanan (cf. O.N. skafa, M.Du. scaven, Ger. schaben, Goth. skaban), from PIE *skabh-, collateral form of base *(s)kep- "to cut, to scrape, to hack" (cf. Gk. skaptein "to dig," L. scabere "to scratch, scrape;" see shear). Original strong verb status is preserved in past tense form shaven. Specifically in ref. to cutting the hair close from c.1250. Fig. sense of "to strip (someone) of money or possessions" is attested from c.1399.

ny: O.E. ænig "any, anyone," lit. "one-y," from P.Gmc. *ainagas (cf. O.S. enig, O.N. einigr, O.Fris. enich, Du. enig, Ger. einig). Thr -y may have dim. force here. Any old is from 1896. Combinations anywise, anyone, anything date back to O.E.; anywhere is from c.1300; anybody 1490; anyway 1570 (but anyways, with adverbial genitive, is from 1560); anyhow 1740.

Ever: O.E. æfre, no cognates in any other Gmc. language; perhaps a contraction of a in feore, lit. "ever in life" (the expression a to fore is common in O.E. writings). First element is almost certainly related to O.E. a "always, ever," from P.Gmc. *aiwo, from PIE *aiw- "vital force, life, long life, eternity." Evermore is O.E. æfre ma; in ref. to trees and shrubs, evergreen is from 1644.

Kan: O.E. 1st & 3rd pers. sing. pres. indic. of cunnan "know, have power to, be able," (also "to have carnal knowledge"), from P.Gmc. *kunnan "to be mentally able, to have learned" (cf. O.N. kenna "to know, make known," O.Fris. kanna "to recognize, admit," Ger. kennen "to know," Goth. kannjan "to make known"), from PIE base *gno- (see know). Absorbing the third sense of "to know," that of "to know how to do something" (in addition to "to know as a fact" and "to be acquainted with" something or someone). An O.E. preterite-present verb, its original p.p., couth, survives only in its negation (see uncouth), but cf. could. Cannot is attested from c.1400; can't first recorded 1706 (O.E. expressed the notion by ne cunnan).

heer: O.E. hær, from P.Gmc. *khæran (cf. O.S., O.N., O.H.G. har, O.Fris. her, Du., Ger. haar "hair"), from PIE *ker(s)- "to bristle" (cf. Lith. serys "bristle"). Modern spelling infl. by O.E. haire "haircloth," from O.Fr. haire, from Frank. *harja. Hairy in slang sense of "difficult" is first recorded 1848. Hairbreadth (1561) is said to have been formerly a formal unit of measure equal to one-forty-eighth of an inch.

Round: c.1300, from phrase on round. Rare before 1600. In sense of "here and there with no fixed direction" it is 1776.

Yshorn ->y+shorn: shear: O.E. sceran, scieran (class IV strong verb; past tense scear, pp. scoren), from P.Gmc. *sker- "to cut" (cf. O.N., O.Fris. skera, Du. scheren, Ger. scheren "to shear"), from PIE *(s)ker- "to cut, to scrape, to hack" (cf. Skt. krnati "hurts, wounds, kills," krntati "cuts;" Hittite karsh- "to cut off;" Gk. keirein "to cut, shear;" Lith. skiriu "to separate;" O.Ir. scaraim "I separate;" Welsh ysgar "to separate," ysgyr "fragment").

top: "highest point," O.E. top "summit, crest, tuft," from P.Gmc. *tuppaz (cf. O.N. toppr "tuft of hair," O.Fris. top "tuft," O.Du. topp, Du. top, O.H.G. zopf "end, tip, tuft of hair," Ger. Zopf "tuft of hair"); no certain connections outside Gmc. except a few Romanic words probably borrowed from Gmc. Few IE languages have a word so generic, which can be used of the upper part or surface of just about anything. More typical is Ger., which has Spitze for sharp peaks (mountains), oberfläche for the upper surface of flat things (such as a table). The verb meaning "put a top on" is from 1581; the meaning "be higher or greater than" is first recorded 1582.

Docked: "cut an animal's tail," c.1386, from dok (n.) "fleshy part of an animal's tail," related to O.E. -docca "muscle," from P.Gmc. *dokko "something round, bundle" (cf. O.N. dokka "bundle, girl," Dan. dukke "doll," Ger. Docke "small column, bundle, doll, smart girl").

Lyk: "having the same characteristics or qualities" (as another), M.E. shortening of O.E. gelic "like, similar," from P.Gmc. *galikaz "having the same form," lit. "with a corresponding body" (cf. O.S. gilik, O.N. glikr, Du. gelijk, Ger. gleich, Goth. galeiks "equally, like"), a compound of *ga- "with, together" + *likan "body" (cf. O.E. lic "body," Ger. Leiche "corpse," Dan. lig, Swed. lik, Du. lijk "body, corpse"). Analogous, etymologically, to L. conform. The modern form (rather than *lich) may be from a northern descendant of the O.E. word's O.N. cognate, likr. Formerly with comp. liker and superl. likest (still in use 17c.). The prep. (c.1200) and the adv. (c.1300) are both from the adjective. As a conjunction, first attested c.1530.

Preest: O.E. preost, shortened from the older Gmc. form represented by O.S., O.H.G. prestar, O.Fris. prestere, from V.L. *prester "priest," from L.L. presbyter "presbyter, elder," from Gk. presbyteros (see Presbyterian). In O.T. sense, a transl. of Heb. kohen, Gk. hiereus, L. sacerdos. Priesthood is O.E. preosthad. Priestcraft originally was "the business of being a priest" (1483); after rise of Protestantism and the Enlightenment, it acquired a pejorative sense of "arts of ambitious priests for temporal power and social control" (1681).

Longe: O.E. lang, long, from P.Gmc. *langgaz (cf. O.H.G., Ger. lang, O.N. langr, M.Du. lanc, Goth. laggs "long"), perhaps from PIE *dlonghos- (cf. L. longus, O.Pers. darga-, Pers. dirang, Skt. dirghah, Gk. dolikhos "long," Gk. endelekhes "perpetual," L. indulgere "to indulge"). The adv. is from O.E. lange, longe, from the adjective. The word illustrates the O.E. tendency for short "a" to become short "o" before -n- (also retained in bond/band and W. Midlands dial. lond from land and hond from hand).

Legges: plural form of the term “leg”: c.1275, from O.N. leggr "leg, bone," from P.Gmc. *lagjaz. Replaced O.E. shank. The meaning "a part or stage of a journey or race" (1920) is from earlier sailing sense of "a run made on a single tack" (1867), which was usually qualified as long leg, short leg, etc. Leg-work (1891) was originally news reporter's slang for an assignment that produced more walking than text. Slang phrase shake a leg "dance" is attested from 1881. To be on (one's) last legs "at the end of one's life" is from 1599.

Lene: "thin, spare, with little flesh or fat," O.E. hlæne, possibly from hlænan "cause to lean or bend," from P.Gmc. *khlainijan, which would make it related to O.E. hleonian (see lean (v.)). But perhaps rather from a PIE *qloinio- (cf. Lith. klynas "scrap, fragment," Lettish kleins "feeble").

Ylyk->y+lyk: lyk: previously mentioned as “lyk” without the OE prefix “Y”.

Staf: O.E. stæf "walking stick, strong pole used for carrying, rod used as a weapon" (also, in plural, "letter, character, writing," cf. stæfcræft "grammar"), from P.Gmc. *stabaz (cf. O.S. staf, O.N. stafr, O.Fris. stef, M.L.G., M.Du. staf, O.H.G. stab, Ger. Stab, Goth. *stafs "element;" M.Du. stapel "pillar, foundation"), from PIE base *stebh- "post, stem, to support, place firmly on, fasten" (cf. O.Lith. stabas "idol," Lith. stebas "staff, pillar;" O.C.S. stoboru "pillar;" Skt. stabhnati "supports;" Gk. stephein "to tie around, encircle, wreathe," staphyle "grapevine, bunch of grapes;" O.E. stapol "post, pillar"). Sense of "group of military officers that assists a commander" is attested from 1702, apparently from Ger., from the notion of the "baton" that is a badge of office or authority (a sense attested in Eng. from 1535).

No: "negative reply," c.1225, from O.E. na (adv.) "never, no," from ne "not, no" + a "ever," from P.Gmc. *ne (cf. O.N., O.Fris., O.H.G. ne, Goth. ni "not"), from PIE base *ne- "no, not" (see un-). Second element from PIE *aiw- "vital force, life, long life, eternity" (see aye (2)). As an adj. meaning "not any" (c.1200) it is reduced from O.E. nan (see none), the final -n omitted first before consonants and then altogether.

Calf: [ON; cp. OI kalfi.] ~ flesh, calve's flesh, veal; calver dong, dung of calves; ~ (calves) fot, calves grece, calves hed, calves tail, calves thigh; ~ fel (skin), calves fel (skin), a calfskin; calves lether, leather from calfskin; ~ clos (haue, heie, yard), an enclosure for calves; ~ hous, a shed or barn for calves; ~ pasture, pasture for calves; ~ herd, ~ knave, calves (calver) knave, herdsman who takes care of calves; -- as surnames.

Ysene->y+sene: sene: OE or LOE (chiefly WS unless indicated) son, son, (A) sa(n; infl.inf. sonne; sg.1 so; sg.2 sihst; sg.3 si(e)hþ, sþ; impv. sioh, (A) seh, sih; pl. soþ, (A) sað; p. seah, seh, (A) sæh; pl. swon, sgon, (A) sgon; ppl. sewen. For relevant forms of OE geson see ME isn v. Some SW and SWM forms in p.sg.2 and pl. for which is given may have had . Analogies within the paradigm and with other strong verbs account for many nondialectal irregularities in ME. Some forms are marked as dissyllabic in the inf., but doubtless such forms existed throughout the paradigma) To see (sb., sth., a place) with the eyes, catch sight of, notice; also, be able to see (sb., sth., a place); also fig.; (b) with ellipsis of obj. or rel.pron.; -- also in than clause; (c) ppl. sene, visible, seen with the eyes; able to be seen; also fig.; ben sene; ben sene to, to appear to (sb.); (d) ~ mid (at, thurgh) eie, ~ with eie (eien, bodiliche eien, sight, bodi-sight, eie-sight); -- also without obj. after than; (e) to see (God, Christ, the Holy Ghost); (f) with negative obj.: to see (nothing of sth., nothing but sth., no one but sb., nobody), not see (sb. or sth.); ~ non in sight; also with negative subj.: no-more (no-thing) sene; (g) of the eye(s: to see (sb. or sth.), look at; see visual evidence of (sth.); also fig.; also in proverb.

kepe: late O.E. cepan "to seize, hold," also "to observe," from P.Gmc. *kopijanan, but with no certain connection to other languages. It possibly is related to O.E. capian "to look," from P.Gmc. *kap- (cepan was used c.1000 to render L. observare), which would make the basic sense "to keep an eye on."

garner: c.1175, from O.Fr. gernier, metathesized variant of grenier "storehouse, garret," from L. granarium.

bynne; O.E. binne "manger, crib," from Gaulish, from O.Celt. *benna, akin to Welsh benn "a cart," especially one with a woven wicker body. The same Celtic word seems to be preserved in It. benna "dung cart," Fr. benne "grape-gatherer's creel," Du. benne "large basket," from L.L. benna. Some linguists think there was a parallel Gmc. form to the Celtic one.

noon: 1140, non "midday, 12 o'clock p.m., midday meal," from O.E. non "3 o'clock p.m.," also "the canonical hour of nones," from L. nona hora "ninth hour" of daylight, by Roman reckoning about 3 p.m., from nona, fem. sing. of nonus "ninth" (see nones). Meaning shift from "3 p.m." to "12 p.m." began during 12c., when time of Church prayers shifted from ninth hour to sixth hour, or perhaps because the customary time of the midday meal shifted, or both. The shift was complete by 14c. (cf. same evolution in Du. noen). Noonday was first used by Coverdale (1535).

Auditour: An official who examines and verifies accounts, an auditor or examiner; also fig. of God. 1431, from L. auditus "a hearing," pp. of audire "hear" (see audience). Official examination of accounts, which were originally oral. The verb is attested from 1557. Auditor id attested from 1377, from Anglo-Fr. auditour, from L. auditorem (nom. auditor) "a hearer," from auditus.

On: O.E. on, unstressed variant of an "in, on, into," from P.Gmc. (cf. Du. aan, Ger. an, Goth. ana "on, upon"), from PIE base *ano "on" (cf. Avestan ana "on," Gk. ana "on, upon," L. an-, O.C.S. na, Lith. nuo "down from").

Him: O.E. him, originally dative masc. and neut. of he; beginning 10c. it replaced hine as masc. accusative, a regional process completed by 15c. The dative roots of the -m ending are retained in Ger. (ihm) and Du. (hem). Hine persists, barely, as the southern England dialectal 'un, 'n for "him."

Wynne: fusion of O.E. winnan "struggle for, work at, strive, fight," and gewinnan "to gain or succeed by struggling, to win," both from P.Gmc. *wenwanan (cf. O.S. winnan, O.N. vinna, O.Fris. winna, Du. winnen "to gain, win," Dan. vinde "to win," O.H.G. winnan "to strive, struggle, fight," Ger. gewinnen "to gain, win," Goth. gawinnen "to suffer, toil"). Perhaps related to wish, or from PIE *van- "overcome, conquer." Sense of "to be victorious" is recorded from c.1300. The noun in O.E. meant "labor, strife, conflict;" modern sense of "a victory in a game or contest" is first attested 1862, from the verb.

wiste: OE witan, wytan, wietan, weotan; pr.ind.sg.1 & 3 wt, (Nhb.) ut, wit(t)o; sg.2 wst, wst; pl. witon, (Nhb.) wuton; p. wiste; pl. wiston, westan; ppl. witen & (neg.) nytan; sg.1 & 3 nt; pl. nyton, niton, neton, (Nhb.) nutu; p. nyste; pl. nyston, neston. For a few forms also cp. ON: cp. OI vita, pr.ind.sg.1 & 3 veit (a) To maintain possession of (sth.), preserve; take (sth.) into safekeeping, take charge of; also fig.; -- also without obj.; in hortatory expression: god witie, may God preserve (what he has given us);

droghte: O.E. drugað, from P.Gmc. *drugothaz; related to drugian "dry up, whither" + -ith Gmc. suffix for forming abstract n. from adj. Drouth was a M.E. variant continued in Scot. and northern Eng. dialect.

Reyn: O.E. regn, from P.Gmc. *regna- (cf. O.S. regan, O.N. regn, O.Fris. rein, M.Du. reghen, Ger. regen, Goth. rign "rain"), with no certain cognates outside Gmc., unless it is from a presumed PIE *reg- "moist, wet," which may be the source of L. rigare "to wet, moisten" (cf. irrigate). The verb is O.E. regnian, usually contracted to rinan. Transf. and fig. use of other things that fall as rain (blessings, tears, etc.) is recorded from c.1200. Rainbow is O.E. renboga (common Gmc. compound, cf. O.N. regnbogi, Du. regenboog, see bow (n.)).

yeldynge: O.E. geldan (Anglian), gieldan (W.Saxon) "to pay" (class III strong verb; past tense geald, p.p. golden), from P.Gmc. *geldanan "pay" (cf. O.S. geldan "to be worth," O.N. gjaldo "to repay, return," M.Du. ghelden, Du. gelden "to cost, be worth, concern," O.H.G. geltan, Ger. gelten "to be worth," Goth. fra-gildan "to repay, requite"), perhaps from PIE *ghel-to- "I pay," found only in Balto-Slavic and Gmc., unless O.C.S. zledo, Lith. geliuoti are Gmc. loan-words. Sense developed in Eng. via use to translate L. reddere, Fr. rendre, and had expanded by c.1300 to "repay, return, render (service), produce, surrender." Related to M.L.G. and M.Du. gelt, Du. geld, Ger. Geld "money." Earliest Eng. sense survives in financial "yield from investments." The noun is O.E. gield "payment, sum of money;" extended sense of "production" (as of crops) is first attested c.1440. Yielding in sense of "giving way to physical force" is recorded from 1665.

Seed: O.E. sed, sæd, from P.Gmc. *sædis, *sæda- (cf. O.N. sað, O.S. sad, O.Fris. sed, M.Du. saet, O.H.G. sat, Ger. Saat), from root *sæ- "to sow," from PIE base *se- "to sow" (see sow (v.)). Meaning "offspring, progeny" was in O.E., rare now except in biblical use. Sporting (originally tennis) sense is from notion of spreading certain players' names so as to insure they will not meet early in a tournament (1924). Seedy is 1440, originally "fruitful, abundant," .

Greyn: .1202, from O.Fr. grein, from L. granum "seed" (see corn). As collective sing. meaning "seed of wheat and allied grasses used as food," it is attested from c.1315. Extended in M.E. to other objects (e.g. salt, sand). Used of wood (1565), from the arrangement of fibers, which resemble seeds. Hence, against the grain (1650), a metaphor from carpentry: cutting across the fibers of the wood is more difficult than cutting along them.

lordes: plural form of the previously mentioned term “lord”.

sheep: O.E. sceap, scep, from W.Gmc. *skæpan (cf. O.S. scap, O.Fris. skep, M.L.G. schap, M.Du. scaep, Du. schaap, O.H.G. scaf, Ger. Schaf), of unknown origin. Not found in Scand. or Goth., and with no known cognates outside Gmc. The more usual I.E. word for the animal is represented by ewe. As a type of timidity, from O.E.; the meaning "stupid, timid person" is attested from 1542. The image of the wolf in sheep's clothing was in O.E. (from Matt. vii.15); that of separating the sheep from the goats is from Matt. xxv.33. To count sheep in a bid to induce sleep is recorded from 1854. Sheep's eyes "loving looks" is attested from 1529 (cf. W.Fris. skiepseach, Du. schaapsoog, Ger. Schafsauge).

Neet: [OE nat] (a) Coll. Livestock; esp. bovine animals, cattle; drove of ~, a herd of livestock; hed of ~, a single beast; muk of ~, ?the dung of livestock, ?a dung beetle; (b) an ox, a cow, or a heifer; -- also pl.; (c) ~ hous, a cowshed; ~ silver, pasture rent; sleie ~, cattle for slaughter; ~ drivere, netes fet (lether, milk, skin, stal), net(es bladdre (flesh, hide, pasture); (d) in surnames and place names [see Smith PNElem. 2.49]. (a) Coll. Livestock; esp. bovine animals, cattle; drove of ~, a herd of livestock; hed of ~, a single beast; muk of ~, ?the dung of livestock, ?a dung beetle; (b) an ox, a cow, or a heifer; -- also pl.; (c) ~ hous, a cowshed; ~ silver, pasture rent; sleie ~, cattle for slaughter; ~ drivere, netes fet (lether, milk, skin, stal), net(es bladdre (flesh, hide, pasture); (d) in surnames and place names [see Smith PNElem. 2.49].

Dayerye: M.E. A herd of milk (milche in Middle English) cows; a dairy.

swyn: O.E. swin "pig, hog," from P.Gmc. *swinan (cf. O.S., O.Fris. M.L.G., O.H.G. swin, M.Du. swijn, Du. zwijn, Ger. Schwein), neut. adj. (with suffix *-ino-) from PIE *su- (see sow (n.)). The native word, largely ousted by pig. Applied to persons from c.1380. Swineherd is recorded from c.1100 as swynhyrde; swinish is from c.1200.

hors: O.E. hors, from P.Gmc. *khursa- (cf. O.N. hross, O.Fris. hors, M.Du. ors, Du. ros, O.H.G. hros, Ger. Roß "horse"), of unknown origin, connected by some with PIE base *kurs-, source of L. currere "to run" (see current). Replaced O.E. eoh, from PIE *ekwo- "horse" (cf. Gk. hippos, L. equus, O.Ir. ech, Goth. aihwa-, Skt. açva-, all meaning "horse"). In many other languages, as in O.E., this root has been lost in favor of synonyms, probably via superstitious taboo on uttering the name of an animal so important in I.E. religion. Used since at least 1391 of various devices or appliances which suggest a horse (e.g. sawhorse). Horseplay is from 1589. The belief that finding a horseshoe by chance is lucky is attested from late 14c.. Dead horse as a figure for "something that has ceased to be useful" is attested from 1638. High horse originally (c.1380) was "war horse, charger.

Stoor: from O.Fr. estorer. 1297, "that with which a household, camp, etc. is stored," from store (v.). Sense of "sufficient supply (of anything)" is attested from 1471.

Pultrye: 1345, from O.Fr. pouletrie "domestic fowl" (1280), from poulet "young fowl" (see pullet). Poulterer (1638) is a redundancy, but has largely ousted orig. poulter (c.1400), from O.Fr. pouletier "poulterer," with agent suffix -er. Poetic poulter's measure (1576) is of fanciful origin.

Hoolly: O.E. hal "entire, unhurt, healthy," from P.Gmc. *khailaz "undamaged" (cf. O.S. hel, O.N. heill, O.Fris. hal, M.Du. hiel, Du. heel, O.H.G., Ger. heil "salvation, welfare"), from PIE *koilas (cf. O.S.C. celu "whole, complete;" see health). The spelling with wh- developed c.1420. Whole-hearted is first recorded 1840. For phrase whole hog, see hog.

Reves: plural form of “Reve”, previously mentioned.

Governynge: 1297, from O.Fr. governer "govern," from L. gubernare "to direct, rule, guide," originally "to steer," from Gk. kybernan "to steer or pilot a ship, direct" (the root of cybernetics). The -k- to -g- sound shift is perhaps via the medium of Etruscan. Governess "female ruler" is 1483, shortening of governouresse "a woman who rules".

covenant: 1297, from O.Fr. covenant "agreement," originally prp. of covenir "agree, meet," from L. convenire "come together" (see convene). Applied in Scripture to God's arrangements with man, as a translation of L. testamentum, Gk. diatheke, both rendering Heb. berith (though testament is also used for the same word in different places). Covenanter (1638), especially used of Scottish Presbyterians who signed the Solemn League and Covenant (1643) for the defense and furtherance of their cause.

Yaf: OE þah, þh, þh, þh, dh, dh, (Nhb.) ðch conj. & ON: cp. OI þ conj. Forms in -t and -th(e may have been influenced by ON (cp. OI þt(t, contr. of þ at) or perh. derived from the OE comb. þah þe. If; also, whether; what ~, what if; (b) introducing a hypothetical but possible condition: were it the case that, if for example; also, with concessive force: even if; -- sometimes in parenthetical constructions [quots. a1393 & a1425(a1400)]; ~ that; (c) introducing a clearly impossible or contrary-to-fact condition: in the extreme case that, granted the impossible case that, even supposing that; ~ that; (d) as if; also, with comp.: than if [quot. c1275]; as ~ (that, as if, as though; than ~, than as if.

Rekenynge: O.E. gerecenian "to recount, relate," from W.Gmc. *(ga)rekenojanan (cf. O.Fris. rekenia, M.L.G. rekenen, O.H.G. rehhanon, Ger. rechnen, Goth. rahnjan "to count, reckon"), from P.Gmc. *rakinaz "ready, straightforward," from PIE *reg- "to move in a straight line." I reckon, used parenthetically, is now dialectal (Southern U.S.), but dates from 1603 and formerly was in literary use (Richardson, etc.). Reckoning is recorded from c.1300.

Syn: c.1450, synnes, from sithenes "since," from sithen (plus adverbial genitive -es), from O.E. siððan "then, later, after that," originally sið ðan "after that," from sið "after" + ðan, weakened form of ðam, dative of ðæt (see that). Modern spelling replaced syns, synnes 16c. to indicate voiceless final -s- sound. O.E. sið is from PIE *se- "long, late" (cf. Ger. seit "since," Goth. seiþus "late," Skt. sayam "in the evening," L. serus "late").

Twenty: O.E. twentig "group of twenty," from twegen "two" (see two) + -tig "group of ten" (see -ty (1)). Cognate with O.Fris. twintich, Du. twintig, O.H.G. zweinzug, Ger. zwanzig. Goth. twai tigjus is even more transparent: lit. "two tens." Twentieth is O.E. twentigoða.

Yeer: O.E. gear (W.Saxon), ger (Anglian) "year," from P.Gmc. *jæram "year" (cf. O.S., O.H.G. jar, O.N. ar, Dan. aar, O.Fris. ger, Du. jaar, Ger. Jahr, Goth. jer "year"), from PIE *yer-o-, from base *yer-/*yor- "year, season" (cf. Avestan yare (nom. sing.) "year;" Gk. hora "year, season, any part of a year," also "any part of a day, hour;" O.C.S. jaru, Boh. jaro "spring;" L. hornus "of this year;" O.Pers. dušiyaram "famine," lit. "bad year"). Probably originally "that which makes [a complete cycle]," and from verbal root *ei- meaning "to do, make." Yearling is first attested 1465; yearly is O.E. gearlic (cf. Ger. jährlich).

Age: 1297, "long but indefinite period in human history," from O.Fr. aage, from V.L. *ætaticum (cf. Sp. edad, It. eta), from L. ætatem (nom. ætas), "period of life," from ævum "lifetime, eternity, age," from PIE base *aiw- "vital force, life, long life, eternity" (see eon). Meaning "time something has lived, particular length or stage of life" is from c.1315. Used especially for "old age" since c.1330. Expelled native eld. The verb meaning "to grow old" is from 1398.

Brynge: O.E. bringan (p.t. brohte, pp. broht), from P.Gmc. *brenganan (cf. O.Fris. brenga; M.Du. brenghen; O.H.G. bringan; Goth. briggan, p.t. brohte, pp. broht); no exact cognates outside Gmc., but it appears to be from PIE base *bhrengk-, compound based on root *bher- "to carry" (cf. L. ferre; see infer). The tendency to conjugate this as a strong verb on the model of sing, drink, etc., is ancient: O.E. also had a rare strong pp. form, brungen, corresponding to modern colloquial brung.

Arrerage: OF ar(r)ierage (a) An unpaid debt, the balance due (on a debt, rent, wages, a pension, a tax or tribute, etc.); fig. man's unpaid debt to God, a sin or shortcoming; (b) the balance of an account, money received or collected to be paid to a successor or a superior.

PORTFOLIO PRESENTATION (part 1)

NOTE: We have put the glossary not in one part but in two due to space reasons. The text begins with this first part of the glossary.

And: O.E. and, ond, orig. meaning "thereupon, next," from P.Gmc. *unda (cf. O.S. endi, O.Fris. anda, M.Du. ende, O.H.G. enti, Ger. und, O.N. enn), cognate with L. ante, Gk. anti. Phrase and how as an exclamation of emphatic agreement dates from early 1900s.

therto →there+to: there: O.E. þær "in or at that place," from P.Gmc. *thær (cf. O.S. thar, O.Fris. ther, M.L.G. dar, M.Du. daer, Du. daar, O.H.G. dar, Ger. da, Goth. þar, O.N. þar), from PIE *tar- "there" (cf. Skt. tar-hi "then"), from base *to- (see the) + adverbial suffix -r. Interjectional use is recorded from 1535. To have been there "had previous experience of some activity" is recorded from 1877.

Brood: O.E. brod, from P.Gmc. *brod (cf. M.Du. broet, O.H.G. bruot), lit. "that which is hatched by heat," from *bro- "to warm, heat," from PIE *bhre- "burn, heat, incubate," from base *bhreue- "to boil, bubble, effervesce, burn" (see brew). The verbal figurative meaning ("to incubate in the mind") is first recorded 1571, from notion of "nursing" one's anger, resentment, etc.

Brew: O.E. breowan (class II strong verb, past tense breaw, past participle browen), from P.Gmc. *breuwan "to brew" (cf. O.N. brugga, O.Fris. briuwa, M.Du. brouwen), from PIE base *bhreue- "to bubble, boil, effervesce" (cf. Skt. bhurnih "violent, passionate," Gk. phrear "well, spring," L. fervere "to boil, foam," Thracian Gk. brytos "fermented liquor made from barley;" O.E. beorma "yeast;" O.H.G. brato "roast meat"), the original sense thus being "make a drink by boiling." The noun is 1510, from the verb. Brewery (1658) replaced brewhouse (1373).

As: c.1175, worn-down form of O.E. alswa "quite so" (see also). Equivalent to so; any distinction in use is purely idiomatic. Related to Ger. als "as, than."

Also: O.E. eallswa "exactly so," compound of all + so. The demonstrative sense of "similarly" weakened to "in addition to" in 12c., replacing eke. The compound has parallel forms in Ger. also, Du. alzoo. Also-ran is attested from 1896, originally in ref. to horse-races.

though: c.1200, from O.E. þeah, and in part from O.N. þo "though," both from P.Gmc. *thaukh (cf. Goth. þauh, O.Fris. thach, M.Du., Du. doch, O.H.G. doh, Ger. doch), from PIE demonstrative pronoun *to- (see that). The evolution of the terminal sound did not follow laugh, tough, etc., though a tendency to end the word in "f" existed c.1300-1750 and persists in dialects.

it: O.E. hit, neut. nom. & acc. of third pers. sing. pronoun, from P.Gmc. demonstrative base *khi- (cf. O.Fris. hit, Du. het, Goth. hita "it"), which is also the root of he. As gender faded in M.E., it took on the meaning "thing or animal spoken about before." The h- was lost due to being in an unemphasized position, as in modern speech the h- in "give it to him," "ask her," "is only heard in the careful speech of the partially educated" [Weekley]. It "the sex act" is from 1611; meaning "sex appeal (especially in a woman)" first attested 1904 in works of Rudyard Kipling, popularized 1927 as title of a book by Elinor Glyn, and by application of It Girl to silent-film star Clara Bow (1905-1965). In children's games, meaning "the one who must tag the others" is attested from 1842.

were: O.E. wæron (past plural indicative of wesan) and wære (second person singular past indicative); see was. The forms illustrate Verner's Law (named for Danish linguist Karl Verner, 1875), which predicts the "s" to "z" sound shift, and rhotacism, which changed "z" to "r." Wast (second person sing.) was formed 1500s on analogy of be/beest, displacing were. An intermediate form, wert, was used in literature 17c.-18c., before were reclaimed the job.

an: indefinite article, 12c., from O.E. an (with a long vowel) "one, lone," also used as a prefix an- "single, lone;" see one for the divergence of that word from this one. Also see a, of which this is the older, fuller form. In other European languages, identity between indefinite article and the word for "one" remains explicit (e.g. Fr. un, Ger. ein, etc.) O.E. got by without indefinite articles: He was a good man in O.E. was he wæs god man. Circa 15c., a and an commonly were written as one word with the following noun, which contributed to the confusion over how such words as newt and umpire ought to be divided (see N). In Shakespeare, etc., an sometimes is a contraction of as if (a usage first attested c.1300), especially before it.

spade(1): "tool for digging," O.E. spadu, from P.Gmc. *spadon (cf. O.Fris. spada, M.Du. spade, O.S. spado, M.L.G. spade, Ger. Spaten), from PIE *spe- "long, flat piece of wood" (cf. Gk. spathe "wooden blade, paddle," O.E. spon "chip of wood, splinter," O.N. spann "shingle, chip"). To call a spade a spade "use blunt language" (1542) translates a Gk. proverb (known to the Romans), but Erasmus mistook Gk. skaphe "trough, bowl" for a derivative of the stem of skaptein "to dig," and the mistake has stuck. The original, then, is "to call a bowl a bowl."

spade(2): "figure on playing cards," 1598, probably from It. spade, pl. of spada "sword, spade," from L. spatha "broad, flat weapon or tool," from Gk. spathe "broad blade" (see spade (1)). Phrase in spades "in abundance" first recorded 1929 (Damon Runyon), probably from bridge, where spades are the highest-ranking suit. "The invitations to the musicale came sliding in by pairs and threes and spade flushes." [O.Henry, "Cabbages & Kings," 1904] Derogatory meaning "black person" is 1928, from the colour of the playing card symbol.

upon: 1121, from up + on, probably influenced by O.N. upp a. Distinct from O.E. uppan which merely meant "up." In the mod. Scand. tongues, except Icelandic and Færöese, the reduced form pa, paa, corresponding to Eng. (colloq. or dial.) 'pon, 'po', has displaced the simple prep. å, aa = on. [OED]

the: late O.E. þe, nom. masc. form of the demonstrative pronoun and adj. After c.950, it replaced earlier se (masc.), seo (fem.), þæt (neut.), and probably represents se altered by the þ- form which was used in all the masc. oblique cases (see below). O.E. se is from PIE base *so- "this, that" (cf. Skt. sa, Avestan ha, Gk. ho, he "the," Ir., Gael. so "this"). For the þ- forms, see that. The s- forms were entirely superseded in Eng. by c.1250, excepting dial. survival slightly longer in Kent. O.E. used 10 different words for "the" (see table, below), but did not distinguish "the" from "that." That survived for a time as a definite article before vowels (cf. that one or that other). Adv. use in the more the merrier, the sooner the better, etc. is a relic of O.E. þy, originally the instrumentive case of the neuter demonstrative þæt (see that).

cop: two entries.

cop(v): 1704, northern British dialect, "seize," perhaps from M.Fr. caper "seize, to take," from L. capere "to take"; or from Du. kapen "to take," from O.Fris. capia "to buy." Cop out (v.) and cop-out (n.) are Amer.Eng., first recorded 1942, probably from cop a plea (c.1925) "plead guilty to lesser charges."

cop(n): "policeman," 1859, abbreviation of earlier copper (1846), from the verb.

right(adj.1): "morally correct," O.E. riht "just, good, fair, proper, fitting, straight," from P.Gmc. *rekhtaz (cf. O.H.G. reht, Ger. recht, O.N. rettr, Goth. raihts), from PIE base *reg- "move in a straight line," also "to rule, to lead straight, to put right" (see regal; cf. Gk. orektos "stretched out, upright;" L. rectus "straight, right;" O.Pers. rasta- "straight, right," aršta- "rectitude;" O.Ir. recht "law;" Welsh rhaith, Breton reiz "just, righteous, wise"). Cf. slang straight "honest, morally upright," and L. rectus "right," lit. "straight," Lith. teisus "right, true," lit. "straight." Gk. dikaios "just" (in the moral and legal sense) is from dike "custom." The noun sense of "just claim" was in O.E. and P.Gmc. As an emphatic, meaning "you are right," it is recorded from 1588; use as a question meaning "am I not right?" is from 1961. The phrase to rights "at once, straightway" is 1663, from sense "in a proper manner" (M.E.). The sense in right whale is "justly entitled to the name." Phrase right off the bat is 1914, earlier hot from the bat (1888), probably a baseball metaphor; right stuff "best human ingredients" is from 1848, popularized by Tom Wolfe's 1979 book about the first astronauts. Right on! as an exclamation of approval first recorded 1925 in black slang, popularized mid-1960s by Black Panther movement. Right of way is attested from 1768.

of: O.E. of, unstressed form of æf (prep., adv.) "away, away from," from P.Gmc. *af- (cf. O.N. af, O.Fris. af, of "of," Du. af "off, down," Ger. ab "off, from, down"), from PIE *apo- "off, away". Primary sense in O.E. was still "away," but shifted in M.E. with use of the word to translate L. de, ex, and especially O.Fr. de, which had come to be the substitute for the genitive case. "Of shares with another word of the same length, as, the evil glory of being accessory to more crimes against grammar than any other." [Fowler]

his: O.E. his (gen. of he), from P.Gmc. *khisa (cf. Goth. is, Ger. es). Originally also the neut. possessive pronoun, but replaced in that sense c.1600 by its. In M.E., hisis was tried for the absolute pronoun (cf. her/hers), but it failed to stick. For dialectal his'n.

nose: O.E. nosu, from P.Gmc. *nusus (cf. O.N. nös, O.Fris. nose, Du. neus, O.H.G. nasa, Ger. nase), from PIE *nas- (cf. Skt. nasa, O.Pers. naham, O.C.S. nasu, Lith. nosis, L. nasus<